Ida et al. also suggested that although defoliation in Oxytropis sericea reduced photosynthesis and nectar production, it did not alter photosynthate allocation or fruit or seed production. However, Akiyama and A˚ gren demonstrated that defoliation in Arabidopsis thaliana reduced seed production, and this reduction correlated negatively with the removed leaf area. The above contradictory results suggest that defoliation is a complex process, which includes defoliation timing, intensity, and species tolerance, and may lead to different responses. The highly complex nature of the NSC metabolic flux in plants also indicates that defoliation effects cannot be fully explained at the transcriptional level, and its effects on plant growth and reproductive fitness might be elucidated by systems biology in the future. PF-4217903 neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin is a glycoprotein belonging to the family of “lipocalins,” which are small secreted molecules that maintain health and prevent diseases. NGAL has recently been reported to be a biomarker of various benign and malignant conditions and has emerged as an attractive molecular tool with distinct clinical applications for diagnosis and follow up of several diseases. The functions of NGAL in pathological processes include modulation of intracellular stores of iron, bacteriostatic activity, and a potential role in inflammation. In particular, evidence has emerged suggesting NGAL effects in neutrophil chemotaxis and antagonizing oxidative stress. The assay for this molecule shows extreme sensitivity but is associated with low specificity. NGAL has become a successful biomarker for functional, toxic, and ischemic renal damage and for cardiorenal syndromes. Concentrations of this small peptide increase in several conditions. Soluble NGAL has been shown to increase with bacterial infections, inflammatory and ischemic damage, metabolic disease, kidney disease, drug and pathogen intoxications, and solid and hematological malignancies. Significantly elevated NGAL has also been described in embryo conditions, stem cells, and as a result of organ transplants. The biological role of this molecule is unclear. Although NGAL serves as a biomarker for many conditions, it is evident that high sensitivity is associated with low specificity. The potential immunological effects are not thoroughly understood, but there is evidence that NGAL may be associated with inflammatory mechanisms. The potential role of NGAL in inflammatory processes, including modulation of the immune response, should be investigated. An inflammatory role may activate processes that counteract aggressive conditions, such as bacterial infection, ischemic damage, apoptosis, and necrosis. Furthermore, NGAL may mediate active anti-inflammatory processes that promote regeneration, repair, and restoration of stable conditions.